Murphy

Murphy, James. //A Short History of Writing Instruction : From Ancient Greece to Modern America// (2001) toc 1990-2000
 * Prevalence of writing systems argues that writing must be one of the most powerful human instincts. The urge to record and pass on information is universal. Even oral cultures who used memory for transmission generally developed a writing system that supplanted the oral, but books sticks with European and American as title states
 * **Thesis: because writing is something that needs to be taught, we owe it to ourselves to discover how people have been and are teaching this powerful human tool **.
 * **Writing principles 1. Must be taught. 2. Is taught in schools (since Roman) school as mechanism **
 * **One of Murphy’s goals is to see if instruction changed with teaching environment. **
 * ===Ch 1. "Ancient Green Writing Instruction" Richard Leo Enos: ===
 * writing becomes accessible to the non-elite in Greece and democracy flourishes. (is this right).
 * Ch1. Ancient Greek Writing instruction. Richard Leo Enos: oral culture, memory vs. writing, alphabet, writing as public ativity, writing and thinking, literacy Progymnasmata as graded comp exercises. Paideia—what it meant to be educated. Homeric rhapsodes—bards who orally transmitted Homer and other poets, wrote down homer to preserve archaic ode language from changing
 * Syllabaries—sound clusters—not symbols for things.
 * Sophists, logography, rhetoric
 * No one read silently—tied to speech, used reading as a recording device at first.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Plato’s objections to writing, Aristotle’s use of writing. Writing as intellectual process. Isocrates curriculum based on talent, education, practice. **
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Letteraturizzazione process by which features of oral rhetoric are appropriated and applied to writing. Ancients seek systematically taught writing—ala George Kennedy.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">“writing provided the conditions under which not just an expert, but a community such as Athens could become literate”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Began to understand writing as heuristic, for preserving and creating new modes of thought and expression.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">We are similar to Greeks in our use of literacy and our understanding of it” ** !
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Early Greek children were educated by reading Homer; early ed, oral, musical, athletic.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing as a tool to achieve supreme orality only. Instruction tied closely to oral/aural. Alphabet 8-9 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. BCE **
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Much of credit for integrating higher level writing instruction goes to the Sophists. Becomes public—writing/oratory contests.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">5 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C BCE shifts from functional tool to heuristic for advanced thought. Music loses emphasis and writing gains status
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Isocrates is THE EDUCATOR. For him, writing instructor was an integral part of intellectual growth. But in Against the Sophists, distances himself from their brand of instruction. Writes Antidosis at 82 yrs, after teaching. Writing as a way of coming to understand, with intent of solving social issues. We pursue wisdom eloquence, virtue and justice through writing. Complex curriculum. Picked up by Plutarch later. **
 * ===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ch 2. "The Key Role of Habit in Roman Writing Instruction" James J. Murphy ===
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Paired writing and speaking were important to the Romans, each supporting the other.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ch 2. Murphy “The Key Role of Habit in Roman Writing Instruction”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Habit (hexis) roman education as a system, public schools, concept of curriculum, writing and oral language, Quintilian, tutorial teaching, Isocrates’ influence, male-centered education, five parts of Latin rhetoric, Cicero as model, theory and practice, triad of precepts, imitation, practice, inheritance from Greek pedagogy, Grammaticus, Rhetor, seven steps of imitation, form preceding free expression, graded composition exercises, progymnsmata, hermogenes and apthorius, declamation, sequencing, modern criticisms.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Systematized the Greeks ideas, created habit (hexis) network of “public” schools—networks of classrooms. Numerous students in each, each under a master. All used common curriculum! All elements inherited from Greeks, but arrangement by Romans for world wide distribution. Basic principle, students can be habituated in both skill and virtue.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">“in writing are the roots, in writing are the foundations of eloquence.” Quintilian
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Early Romans incorporated Isocrates’ educational principles and made schools.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">More male-centered schools than Greece because society was more male centered and patriarchial.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Five parts of rhet are assumed standard by Cicero in Ad Herennium: invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Quintilian Institutio Oratio 95 AD Famous teacher/professor, compares methods and approaches orator must know all—liberal arts ed. Oral expression still the objective. Insistence on morality.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pragmatic Romans embraced wide knowledge and Isocrates’s style, not due to philosophy but because it worked.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Exact method is unknown. Textbook.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Habit, habit, habit: habituation is the key
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Memorization of topoi and of poetry and prose for imitation.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Cicero defines grammar as the art of speaking correctly; memorization of models strengthens the mind and provides a storehouse of the best words and phrases and figures—Quintilian
 * ===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ch 3 "Writing Instruction from Late Antiquity to the Twelfth Century" Carol Dana Lanham ===
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">ars dictiminis (letter writing) practical applicaton of writing skills for specific needs of chancery offices and other official bodies; the practitioners of this art wielded great power for centuries, acting as transmitters of messages sent out by popes, kings, etc. IN LATIN
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing in late antiquity and the early middle ages became the primary transmission mode—Benedictine monks copying manuscripts
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Late Antiquity to 12 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Century.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ch 3. Dana Lanham Key concepts: Latin as dominant language, continuity of content and method, role of Christianity, school of reading texts, grammar, rhetoric, progymnasmata, glossaries, differntiae, scholia, exempla, colloquies, teaching anthologies and manuals, narrative sources, wirting instruction, influence of poetry on prose, style and diction, rhythm,
 * <span style="background-color: #ffff00; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">We keep reliving this pattern: Greek, Roman <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">, decline, Greek, Roman, decline
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">To develop eloquent public speakers and political leaders who could guide the civic life of Rome and empire, Quintilian’s goal carries on.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Chaos intertwining with Christianity, wars, fall of rome, subsequent fall of greek-speaking remainder and Byzantine empire.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Education again comes from tutors and for the few. All instruction in latin, vernaculars in rhet appear 9 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C AD.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Spread of Latin has been carried by the vector of Christianity—a religion of The Book. There is a suspicion that rhetoric as pagan—addressed by Augustine—De Doctrina Christiana (427).
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne founds many schools, seeks power through use fo educated clerics, copying of manuscripts in monastic scripture explodes. And interest in classical Latin literature is awakened.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Charlemagne’s foundations will hold.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">12 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. Increased commerce and trade. Urban Cathedral schools appear. Papal bureaucracy, need for educated chancery, clerks and lawyers. Revival of study of roman law and canon law. 1 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">st <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> universities founded!
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">In school, only teacher has book—until 13 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. Grammar texts are there from 3 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">rd <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C on, verse composition from antiquity to 10 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C grammar school. Reading consists of mostly poetry—almost entirely, so texts on meter, terminology, etc.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Artifacts indicate no school instruction on the composition of poetry.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Progymnsamata,
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Glossaries, differentia,etc. 4 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. on we begin rules of pronunciation, spelling, etc. some grammar books reference others in notes—intertextuality of sorts.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Narrative sources emerge, biographies of saints, etc. Lives of Saints.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Instruction is slow, thorough, and relentlessly pedantic
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Imitation, paraphrase, variation as exercises
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ars Dictainis—medieval art of letter writing—starts with Cicero, but medieval emphasis.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Conclusion of section: 5 parts of rhet were codified in Helenistic times as invention arrangement, style, memory and delivery: goal to speak persuasively. Stylistic and grammatical correctness. All continues in medieval; main change is ars dictaminis—much more emphasis.
 * ===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ch 4. "The Teaching of Poetic Composition In the Later Middle Ages" Marjorie Woods ===
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Later Middle Ages; close study of written texts becomes a means of encouraging the composition of poetry in both Latin and the emerging vernaculars.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Later Middle Ages Marjorie Woods: argues that med students were taught verse comp since poetic comp was a distinct genre.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Artes Poetraie, arts of poetry
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Matthew of Vendome, prolific poetic treatise on basic verse comp for young.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Gervase of Melkley, smaller portions of difficult works for the young
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Suggestiveness of language
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Memorization and imitation.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Amplification and abbreviation—student reworking of texts
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Geoffrey of Vinsauf
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Change in order of five parts of rhet for pedagogical effect
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Sensuality for kids, moralizing for adults.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Much like earlier student instruction.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Open minded in choice of reading material but rigid in structural requirements of student composition. Woods thinks this would be effective in modern classroom! Like //They Say/I Say//.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The theory and practice of Cicero meets the pedagogy of Quintilian in school instruction.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Eloquence in both Latin and vernacular.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Despite printing press oratory, oration remains dominant as do classical teacing methods, imitation unchallenged
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Murphy says while renaissance educators condensed and unified, moderns fragment and dilute, departmentalize.
 * ===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ch 5. "Rhetoric and Writing in the Renaissance" Don Paul Abbott ===
 * Milton is product of Renaissance Ed. Thus biblical and classical. They applied rules of classical oration to all discourse, with domination of poetry and a Christian doctrine.
 * Renaissance rhet is always argumentative and persuasive, never neutral” Murphy
 * Women, mostly boys, women educated but even humanists felt they should not be educated in rhetoric because logic is outside woman –Bruni, Leonardo
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Revival of classical rhet, English grammar schools, continental and Jesuit colleges, importance of Latin and Greek
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Erasmus' //De Tatione Studii//
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Erasmus and Qunitilian
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Knowledge of things and words
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Latin as living language
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Imitation of texts
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Elementarie schools
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Double translation
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Cicero as model
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">“ Medievals applied logic to religious texts but abandoned classical rehtorics forusionof thought and expression within a unfied cultural and ethical vision of society (civic) said renaissance humanists who looked to return.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">English grammar school 16 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. really as we know it.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Aim of eloquence and elegance, like Cicero, lost in middle ages.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Printing press England 1477.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ong says “oration tyrannized over ideas of what expressions as such, literary or other,was”
 * ===Ch. 6 "Writing Instruction in Great Britain: The Eighteenth And Nineteenth Centuries" Linda Ferreira-Buckley and Winifred Bryan Horner===
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Social and political changes, politics and religion.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">English vernacular vs. London
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing vs. oratory,
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Belles letters
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Whately’s “Argumentative Composition”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Dissenting academies
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">“redbrick universities”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing instruction for working people.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing instruction in Scotland, wales, Ireland.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Scottish universities on continental plan
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Gaelic and Welsh vernaculars discourages
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Improvement of female ed: women’s colleges
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Salons
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Classical languages are increasingly challenged, writing instruction in English evolves in response to social and political and religious and economic developments.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Shift from Latin to vernacular, from oral to literate, to proliferation of books and periodicals
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Coffee houses, clubs, societies, literary scenes
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rhetoric lectures attended: Blair and Thomas Sheridan, on proper uses of spoken and written English
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Religion and politics merge permanently Jacobite defeat 1746. Many teachers are clergymen. Sermons sell. Non Anglicans face serious educational obstacles in GB
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">English is national language.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Scots, welsh, Irish vernacular deemed unlearned, vulgar and impediment to British nationalism, banned from classrooms.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Whately in //Elements of Rhetoric// 1828 moves to writing solidly. Writing NOT to be publicly recited.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Increase in reading public.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Scottish common sense philosophy is very influential while classical rhetoric wanes, but medieval pedagogy is still influential—trivium of grammar, logic and rhet provide solid if tired training during much of 18 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> c. still memorizing and modeling.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Grammar and writing are bound well into 20 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> c. Books still expensive.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Oral exams move to written exams
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1831 Report to the Royal Commission recommends graded written exercises and examinations.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Still aristocratic and conservative.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Oxford resists change and still studies classically as does Cambridge.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Dissenting academies rebel against Anglican controlled education, against oath of conformity 1559
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Dissenters offered superior education—dissoi logi again, conflicting views. Applied <span style="background-color: #ffff00; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">progymsmata to writing for its own
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">no religious test for admission at“redbrick” or new universities founded in London etc. U of London
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Goal becomes to educate work force for middle class occupations, to educate adults, but not in Scotland
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Illiteracy rampant in whales and Ireland, catholic, worst in Ireland. Newman eventually develops catholic universities, Dublin.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">British girls, no matter class, not permitted in high level of ed, only at home. Fear of infertility and insanity. Victorian fear of argumentative wives.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Capitalism expands middles classes, more free time, more readers and writers. Women read for pleasure. Coquette, governesses, finishing schools. Slowly, some women in university and women's colleges.
 * ===Ch. 7. "From Rhetoric to Composition: The Teaching of Writing in America to 1900" Elizabethada A. Wright and S. Michael Halloran===
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Brinsely’s Latin-based writing program for logos; Catherine Beecher’s English Vernacular curriculum for girls
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Imitation!
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Modern neglect of primary sources.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Conservative oral vernacular curriculum
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rhetoric and “compositions”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Belletristic rhet: Blair Jamieson, Newman
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Taste as a new aesthetic
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Shift toward personal writing topics
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Improved technologies for writing
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rise of middle class
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">More university students
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Importance of “correct” English
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Exposition vs. persuasion
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Girls and nonwhites
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Women as teachers
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing as a bypass of oratory, forbidden to women
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rhet //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">as // composition
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Lit vs. rhet
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Beecher 18 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C says read well,write well. Differs from Brinsely as sees no need to read and write in classical languages. Wants to develop pure English. Not many women educated but is possible.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">“much of great value was lost in the evolution from neoclassical rhet of late 18 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. to comp course of late 19 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C. –we forget the classics in our lovefest with ourselves—me. Heuristic theory and procedures virtually disappeared, Sense of audience narrowed. Loss of sense of large social purpose for writing, a social role for which rhetorical art was necessary equipment –like Quintilian. Is it because classical rhet requires elitism?
 * ===Ch. 8 "A Century of Writing Instruction in School and College English" Catherine L. Hobbs and James A. Berlin===
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing instruction at heart of curriculum—20 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> C.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Historical neglect of continuity in writing instruction
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing pedagogy as site of contestation
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The new school and college
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rise in school and university populations
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Shift from invention to arrangement and style
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Literature and liberal cultural ideal
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">English as new discipline
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Reorganization of English in secondary schools (1917)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Self expression as creative writing
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Challenges from behaviorism
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Challenges from social rhetorics
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Historical rhetorics
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The new rhetoric
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing and cognitive process
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Personal and linguistic growth
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Social epistemic theories
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Teacher initiatives
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Cultural studies and composition
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Computers and technological change.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">New School and college
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Literature for its own sake 1890s
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Economic shift from laissez faire market and individual to managed corporate/govt.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">st <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Harvard option Ed and English played part in transition—German research university model with its specialized discliplines and rigourous researched joined economic and social forces to produce new comprehensive university.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Women teach in lower paying humanities and ed civil war to modern
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">High schools become college prep schools, Harvard is founding center of current traditional rhetoric during last century through textbooks of Adams, Sherman Hill, etc.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Positivistic and rational
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Second option: Liberal culture ideal Yale 1890s. Argued that literature ought to be studied for its own sake. Argued for a few geniuses, not education of all. Literature is the only thing to write about—to train leaders, to be distinct, birth and breeding. High Culture.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1900-17 English becomes a discipline: rhet/grammar/literature
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">High school teachers prep students for work force.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1917 A report to? Reorganization of English. English courses should address social needs and not college requirements.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Creative individual activities in early grades progresses to public social writing in later grades
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Idea of genius given an outlet in creative writing courses—postmodern
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Dominance of expressive writing, challenged by behaviorists and social rhetorics (Dewey and Scott) anti-intellectualism.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1945-60 “life adjustment” in the schools
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">New security for lives that have been disrupted less social, less democratic because more about conformity. Historical rhets Burke, Murphy, etc.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1960-75 more corporate
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Cognitive process and composing
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Learning as “process”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Academics have own structure, not societal
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Teaching writing as cognitive process; writing needs discovery, a means of learning—Bruner
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1975-85 Reagan, conservative turn. Teaching to tests begins. Writing not measured, so often not taught. Reduction of classroom time given to writing.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Those who did not know how to teach writing were responsible for guiding those who did.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Literacy in crisis
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">College writing becomes a discipline, becomes remedial 1975-85
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Emergence of composition studies, grad level too. Two groups: 1. Cognitive rhetoric paradigm—primacy of cognitive structures in composing argues any study process must begin with an analysis of these structures—intersections writing and computers. 2. Expressionists—Peter Elbow etc emphasize private and personal nature of writing, despite growing emphasis on social nature of learning insist on individual against institutional conformity. Personal as source of all value. Reflection! Study own process!
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Renaissance revives Roman educational practices and systematic pairing of oral and written—a means for upward mobility **.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">English “grammar school” and Jesuit educational programs stress careful writing. English grammar school is exported intact to colonial America and prevails well into the 19<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th C.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The physical difficulties of writing. Quickness of thought vs. Slowness of writing: fast mind/slow hand
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">First writing on papyrus—rolled. Not until later antiquity were pieces sewn together at one edge to form a codex (book).
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Parchment—vellum—finest parchment very expensive hides of sheep, not for classrooms
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Wax tablets. Ancient times to Renaissance—used stylus to scratch.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Paper, very expensive at first China 105AD Europe 12<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th C.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Printing changed supply and demand **
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Cheap by lat 19<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th C. Am. Instruments: stylus, pens of metal, wookd goose uills __required sharpening (pen knife) fountain pen (1880s, leaked) pencil as we know it 1898. Ballpoint pen 1946. Mark Twain first major American writer to use a typewriter
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Cheap by lat 19<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: super;">th C. Am. Instruments: stylus, pens of metal, wookd goose uills __required sharpening (pen knife) fountain pen (1880s, leaked) pencil as we know it 1898. Ballpoint pen 1946. Mark Twain first major American writer to use a typewriter
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; background-color: transparent; color: #000000; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Emphasis on literacy
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; background-color: transparent; color: #000000; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Language issues—English only
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; background-color: transparent; color: #000000; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebonics Oakland bidialectism, code switching
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; background-color: transparent; color: #000000; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Computer concerns.