Whately

==Whately, Richard. //Elements of Rhetoric// ==

(1828)

 * initially conceived as a textbook for divinity students and, therefore, emphasizes more of the church rhetoric than any other form. Whately focuses on arguments to provide a defense for religion against skepticism (from science and rationalism). Whately returns to classical invention as a way for priests to generate arguments about revealed truth. Also, Whately emphasizes the need to consider the audience when preparing and delivering sermons–especially the uneducated members of the congregation
 * Whately asserts that rhetoric is an art, not the art. He goes on to say that there are many facets to rhetoric and many definitions that focus on specific facets, but that none of these are mutually exclusive. Whately also connects rhetoric with logic by defining argumentative composition as an offshoot of logic.
 * Whately also enters into the discussion about rhetoric being used for evil purposes by stating that the way in which rhetoric is employed is a reflection upon the person using it and not upon rhetoric itself. This specifically connects back to Augustine’s argument that rhetoric should be contained within the church so that it is not used for evil purposes.
 * Good speakers area a result of a combination of natural ability and practice. Therefore, there is no predetermined amount of success that any student will have when studying rhetoric. Whately argues that learning more doesn’t teach you to think well but that thinking well will help you to learn more.
 * In a manner similar to Bacon, Whately argues that rhetorical education needs to comprise exercises that are relevant to students’ studies, curent events, and personal lives. Therefore, the divinity student and the law student should not be given the same exercises for rhetorical practice.
 * Logic, Composition and Grammar are not prescriptive systems. These systems may help a student, but knowing them is not a guarantee that the student will perform in a reasonable and correct manner. Conversely, the student can function without knowing the systems. Whately argues that the systems help to improve natural abilities but they cannot supersede natural ability. Once a student has learned the system, he can manipulate it, but this again does not mean that his ability has improved.